Hardware level: Events detected by the hardware trigger abrupt control transfers to exception handlers.

Hardware Level:

• Events (Exceptions and interrupts) cause abrupt control transfers.
• These are handled by exception handlers provided by the operating system.

OS level: the kernel transfers control from one user process to another via context switches.

Application level: a process can send a signal to another process that abruptly transfers control to sidestepping the usual stack discipline and making nonlocal jumps to arbitrary locations in other functions.

Individual program: react to errors by sidestepping the usual stack discipline and making nonlocal jumps to arbitrary locations in other functions.

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#5

low-level hardware exceptions are processed by the kernel’s ex